Tapeworms

An Introduction


1

ANNEX 1 - Reuse of excrete
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/onsitesan/ch09.htm
A Guide to the Development of on-site Sanitation, © WHO, 1992

Human excrete should be regarded as a natural resource to be conserved and reused under careful control rather than being discarded.

... Excreta may be treated in various ways to eliminate the possibilities of disease transmission. Apart from storage in double-pit latrines, the most appropriate treatment for on-site sanitation is composting. ...

For centuries, untreated nightsoil has been widely used as a fertilizer in east and south Asia, although there is an increasing awareness of the public health dangers involved. Pathogens of all kinds can remain viable in the soil and on crops (see Table 2.4, page 14). Death of pathogens on crops is usually caused by desiccation and direct sunlight, so pathogens are generally more persistent in humid cloudy climates than in arid areas.

Composting consists of the biological breakdown of solid organic matter to produce a humic substance (compost) which is valuable as a fertilizer and soil conditioner. It has been practiced by farmers and gardeners throughout the world for many centuries. In China, the practice of composting human wastes with crop residues has enabled the soil to support high population densities without loss of fertility for more than 4000 years (McGarry & Stainforth, 1978).

Nightsoil or sludge may be composted with straw and other vegetable waste, or with mixed refuse from domestic, commercial or institutional premises. The process may be aerobic or anaerobic.

Aerobic bacteria combine some of the carbon in organic matter with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide, releasing energy. Some energy is used by the bacteria to reproduce. The rest is converted to heat, often raising the temperature to more than 70°C.

At high temperatures there is rapid destruction of pathogenic bacteria and protozoa, worm eggs and weed seeds. All faecal microorganisms, including enteric viruses and roundworm eggs, will die if the temperature exceeds 46 °C for one week. Fly eggs, larvae and pupae are also killed at these temperature. No objectionable odour is given off if the material remains aerobic.

In the absence of oxygen, nitrogen in organic matter is converted to acids and then to ammonia; carbon is reduced to methane and sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. There is severe odour nuisance. Complete elimination of pathogens is slow, taking up to twelve months for roundworm eggs, for example. ...





2

Cestodocidal Drugs
http://parasitology.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/login/n/h/2097.html
Parasitology Research & Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology

... Economic Importance and Epizootiology
Tapeworms, which belong to the phylum Plathyhelminthes, are hermaphroditic, endoparasitic, elongate, flat worms without a body cavity or alimentary tract, a few millimeters to several meters in length. As a rule economic loss, resulting from cestode infections is less severe than that due to trematode or nematode infections. Adult stages of tapeworms living in the alimentary tract of the final host are remarkably benign although adults may be up to 8 or 15 m in length (e.g. Taenia saginata, Diphyllobothrium latum). ...

Close contact of humans, dogs, and foxes (final hosts) with feedlot cattle and other ruminants, rodents and by chance, humans, acting as intermediate hosts can lead to larval tapeworm infections. Thus, humans infected with T. saginata may pass thousands of eggs daily, which may be transmitted to cattle directly in feed or water or via pasture. Pigs running loose scavenging for food and with easy access to human feces may become infected by ingestion of gravid proglottids.

Invertebrates such as blowflies, beetles, or earthworms may disperse Taenia spp. eggs, and they will remain viable for about 6 months. Cysticerci such as Cysticercus bovis (infectious stage of T. saginata) or C. cellulosae (infectious stage of T. solium) develop primarily in skeletal and cardiac muscle.

Neurocysticercosis of humans may occur by ingestion of T. solium eggs with contaminated food or by autoinfection. Autoinfection is possible if eggs are released in the upper intestine, and regurgitated into the stomach. Oncospheres released from digested eggs then reenter the intestine where they initiate the life cycle.

Economic loss in livestock may result also from condemnation of carcasses or offal as unsuitable for human consumption at the abattoirs. For instance, C. bovis in the musculature of cattle becomes infective about 10 weeks after infections and remains viable for up to 9 months. Humans become infected by the ingestion of raw or undercooked infected beef (Table 2). ....

Today there are no effective drugs, which may be used economically in the treatment of metacestode infections in livestock. Prophylactic measures should therefore always involve treatment of infected persons and management adjustments such as proper meat inspection. However, the latter measure is estimated to detect only about 50% of the infected carcasses.

To kill cysticerci, beef carcasses must be frozen, e.g., for six days at –20°C, or carcasses should be cooked. There are several reports that cattle and sheep (goats) can be successfully vaccinated against T. ovis and T. saginata (beef tapeworm) with recombinant antigens inducing high levels of protective immunity. This may give some hope for the commercial use of such vaccines against infection in the near future.

Through chemotherapy, complete elimination of Echinococcus spp. infections in dogs must be achieved because of the major agricultural and public health problems due to hydatidosis in intermediate hosts. Primarily sheep but also other herbivores such as goats, cattle, horses, camels (pigs), and by chance humans serve as intermediate hosts. ...

Human hydatidosis (infectious stage of E. granulosus, cf. Table 2) is often associated with severe clinical signs, particularly if the brain (neurocysticercosis with calcifications) or heart is involved. This is also true in human alveolar hydatidosis caused by E. multilocularis and E. vogeli

Old Remedies and Modern Compounds with Cestocidal Activity

There are many old remedies showing more or less activity against adult tapeworms. Thus pumpkinseeds, powdered areca (fruits of betel palm, Areca catechu), kousso (flowers of an Abyssinian tree, Hagenia abyssinica), turpentine (oily mixture of exsudates from coniferous trees, especially longleaf pine), pomegranate root bark (tropical Asian and African tree, Punica granatum), and male fern (Dryopteris filix-mas) were used as anticestodal remedies. These and other plant products had been gradually replaced by arecoline (alkaloid obtained from seeds of betel palm), organic tin compounds, lead arsenate or dichlorophen(e) during the first half of this century.

Since 1921, arecoline has been used in veterinary medicine for many years against Echinococcus granulosus and Taenia spp. in dogs. Because of its relative low efficacy and its severe side effects, it is no longer recommended as a therapeutic drug in dogs and cats. However, its strong parasympathomimetic action causes purging and thus partial removal of paralyzed worms from the intestine. This action makes arecoline a useful diagnostic agent, which may give valuable information on whether a group of dogs on a farm is infected with Taenia spp. or Echinococcus spp. or not.

Several `modern' synthetic compounds are in current use for the control of tapeworm infections in livestock and pets (Table 1). Such drugs are for instance dichlorophen (mainly pets), niclosamide, resorantel, bunamidine, benzimidazole carbamates, nitroscanate (pets), pyrantel (e.g. horses), praziquantel and epsiprantel (preferably pets). They may exhibit high activity against immature and adult stages of intestinal tapeworms while praziquantel (Table 2) and benzimidazole carbamates (mebendazole, albendozole) show action against larval stages of certain cestodes. ...

Drugs Acting on Adult and Larval Tapeworm Infections of Humans

Among the adult (intestinal) tapeworms in man, T. solium (pork tapeworm, common in Latin America) and D. latum (broad tapeworm or fish tapeworm, common in regions where freshwater fishes occur) are particularly important to human health. T. solium may cause cysticercosis (Table 2) and D. latum pernicious anemia due to vitamin B12 deficiency.

Other adult tapeworm species affecting humans are T. saginata (beef tapeworm, worldwide distribution, approx. 60 million people currently infected), and Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm, infects not only man but also mice and rats). T. saginata may cause economic loss due to taeniasis or cysticercosis in cattle and H. nana play a role as zoonosis since cross-infections between humans and rodents are possible.

Mainly two drugs, the older niclosamide (a nitrosalicylanilide) and the newer praziquantel (pyrazinoisoquinoline) are used for elimination of these tapeworms from the intestinal tract (dosage, cf. Table 2). Old remedies (certain seeds from locally grown plants) or other drugs may still be in use (Table 1, Table 2).

Larval cestodes of certain tapeworms lodge preferably in the central nervous system, or in the liver (lung or other organs). Thus the cysticercus of T. solium causes neurocysticercosis. The hydatid cyst of E. granulosus produces cystic echinococcosis, and that of E. multilocularis alveolar echinococcosis. E. vogeli causes polycystic echinococcosis in humans, and characteristics of E. vogeli metacestode are considered intermediate to those of E. granulosus and E. multilocularis.

Because of the tumor-like growth and proliferation of larval stages, clinical manifestations and pathology are characterized by their great diversity of moderate to severe symptoms. Treatment of diseases caused by larval stages is based mainly on three measures focusing on symptomatic and causal therapy.

(1) Palliative drugs (e.g. antiepileptics and corticosteroids) are used to control seizures and inflammation associated with tissue reactions caused by cestode larva.

(2) Measures of palliative surgery are performed to drain CSF by placement of ventricular shunts, and those of causative surgery to remove solitary brain cysticerci or hydadit cyst from liver or lung.

(3) Long-term chemotherapy (indicated if surgical resection of cyst is not possible) may result in complete and permanent disappearance of cyst if it is surrounded by minimal adventitial reactions. Patients with complicated cysts (multiple compartments and numerous daughter cysts) and surrounded by solid fibrous reactions appear to be considerably refractory to treatment (drugs used see Table 2). Children suffering from larval cestode infection usually respond more sensitively to chemotherapy than adults.


Albendazole and praziquantel may be useful for affecting and eliminating living cysticerci in brain parenchyma and in the subarachnoidal space. Antiepileptic drugs are the treatment of choice for patients suffering from epileptic attacks caused by neurocyticercosis with calcifications. The administration of such drugs is indicated when seizures are the only manifestation of the disease and there is no imaging and immunological evidence of living parasites.

Corticosteroids should be used simultaneously with chemotherapy (for two or three days prior to and during drug treatment) to reduce exacerbation of neurological symptoms. Any cysticercocidal drug may cause irreparable damage when used to treat ocular or spinal cysts, even when steroids are used. An ophthalmic examination should be carried out before treatment.

Surgical removal of cystic echinococcosis (E. granulosus) appears to be the treatment of choice if cysts are large (>10 cm Ø). When surgical excision cannot be performed because of general condition of the patient and the extent and location of the cyst, long-term chemotherapy should be performed either with albendazole (10 mg/kg, b.w.) or mebendazole (40–50 mg/kg, b.w.) for at least 3 months. These benzimidazole carbamates inhibit the growth of larval E. multilocularis, reduce metatases, and may enhance both the quality and length of patient's survival. Sometimes they may be larvicidal after prolonged therapy but often recurrence may occur.

Alveolar hydatid disease (E. multilocularis) is often diagnosed too late so that lesion becomes inoperable. This may also be true for surgical resection of extensive lesions caused by polycystic echinococcosis (E. vogeli). Liver transplantation has been successfully performed on otherwise terminal cases. Often combination of surgery with chemotherapy (albendazole) is more likely to be successful in cases in which resection is difficult and usually incomplete.

Postoperative chemotherapy should be done routinely for at least 2 years after radical surgery. Also prolonged follow up of patients for at least 10 years with ultrasound or other imaging procedures is necessary to track down possible recurrence of cysts. Combined methods of percutaneous cyst puncture and drainage under ultrasound guidance can be carried out with or without injection of a protoscolicidal compound (96% ethanol, or 20% sodium chloride solution). Thus liquid cyst content is aspirated (or drained), the chemical installed and then re-aspirated (or drained). ...





3

About.....Parasites: The Silent Killer
http://www.viable-herbal.com/health1/health66.htm
Viable Herb Solutions

... Parasites can be microscopic in size or can stretch 30 feet or longer. When most people think of parasites, they visualize tapeworms, hookworms, roundworms and flatworms. The Centers for Disease Control says that tapeworm infection has doubled in frequency within the past 10 years. This is most likely due to the consumption of undercooked beef.

Fleas have been known to carry tapeworms, so it's possible to get them if you have pets. Hookworms can be contracted from walking barefoot on infected soil. Roundworms average 6 to 18 inches in length and can lay thousands of eggs each day. They can actually block the intestines! Roundworm infection is abundant in meat-eating cultures. One type of flatworm, a fluke, can live in the intestines, liver, lungs or blood. ...

Parasites can be contracted by eating undercooked beef, pork, fish or other flesh foods, walking barefoot on infected soil, through sex and casual contact, being by flies, mosquitoes and animals (mainly in the tropics), eating unclean raw vegetables, drinking infected water, close contact with cats, dogs or other pets, and simply contacting filthy environments through breathing or touching.

There is an increased danger of contracting parasites when traveling to tropical and/or underdeveloped countries. The rise in immigration, especially from these areas, also contributes to the epidemic in the U.S. In Brazil, American Trypanosomiasis causes 30% of adult deaths. The World Health Organization categorizes parasites as among the six most harmful infectious diseases in humans. The fact is that parasites outrank cancer as the number one killer in the world today. ...





4

Health Issues
http://www.americanpitbullregistry.com/health%20issues.htm#Tapeworm
American PitBull Registry ( APBR )

... Tapeworm.
There are various types of tapeworm that can affect dogs.
The most common is called Dipylidium caninum (the flea tapeworm).
The most serious from the human point of view is Echinococcus granulosus (the hydatid tapeworm).

Tapeworms consist of a head part, which attaches to the lining of the dog’s intestine and a body, and numerous segments which hang into the inside of the dog’s gut. The flea tapeworm is quite large (up to 50cm) and its segments can often be seen in dog droppings, which resemble small melon seeds and will often move about. The hydatid tapeworm is much smaller (4-6 cm) and the segments in the dog’s droppings cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Tapeworms have a complicated life cycle.
Adult tapeworms shed segments with the dog’s droppings from time to time.
These segments are full of fertile eggs. Unlike most other worms, tapeworms must go through a development stage in another animal (an intermediate host) before they can re-infect the dog. ...

The intermediate host of the hydatid tapeworm is one of a number of farm animals including sheep, cattle and pigs. Man can also act as an intermediate host as we will discuss below. When grazing animals graze areas of grass contaminated with the droppings of hydatid tapeworm infected dogs, they will pick up the eggs of the tapeworm from the contaminated droppings.

Once inside the grazing animal, these eggs will develop into large cysts called hydatids, which usually occur in the offal (i.e. the liver, the lungs, etc.) of the intermediate host. If a dog should then eat the offal from an animal containing hydatids it will become infected with adult hydatid tapeworms. It takes about six weeks for a new hydatid tapeworm infection in the dog to start laying eggs.

Unless present in very large numbers, tapeworms do not usually cause a great deal of discomfort to dogs. However, the segments passed by the flea tapeworm may cause irritation of the dog’s tail and cause the dog to rub its bottom along the grounds.

... the hydatid tapeworm may present a considerable public health problem.
As mentioned previously, man can act as an intermediate host for this tapeworm if he picks up eggs from an infected dog. These eggs will develop into cysts or hydatids in the organs of the human, in the same way that they will in the cattle or other intermediate host.

If hydatids develop in the lungs, the liver or the heart of an infected human, severe disease can result and may only be cured by surgery. It is important to realize that it is the hydatid which affects man, not the adult worm. So eating hydatids in the offal of a cow cannot infect man, but he can become infected by picking up eggs from the droppings of dogs.

Because rural dogs are most likely to have access to infected offal, hydatid tapeworm infection is mainly a problem in rural areas. However, the increasing practice of feeding untreated offal to urban dogs means that the incidence of hydatid tapeworm in urban dogs is probably also increasing. The urban dog owner should also be alert to the dangers. ....





5

Para-Buster Product Outline
http://www.ghchealth.com/para-buster.html
US $30 for 120 capsules

Parasites may be present in food or in water and can cause disease. Ranging in size from tiny, single-celled organisms to worms visible to the naked eye, parasites are more and more frequently being identified as causes of food-borne illness in the United States. The illnesses they can cause range from mild discomfort to debilitating illness and possibly death. It has been reported that 90% of the world population has at least one form of parasite living in their body! They live and feed off the host. They can deprive us of vitamins, nutrients and amino acids, alter our natural pH levels, decrease our energy levels and create an acidic environment in the body. ....

Parasites include ringworm, roundworms, tapeworms, microbial growth and their eggs. There are many ways in which parasites can enter the body: through food that has not been properly washed, infected meat, water, pets, dirt under fingernails, and also through the skin (Hookworm). Once the infection of parasites takes place they begin to multiply rapidly. One of the most common symptoms of parasites is fatigue ....

Ingredients:
(Perma-Guard) Diatomaceous Earth (organic, fresh water-food grade)
DE is an abbreviation of the words "Diatomaceous Earth" which is a fossilized deposit of microscopic shells created by one-celled plants called Diatoms. These plants inhabit all the waters of the earth, and serve as the basic food for aquatic life, just as grass is the basic food for land animals. In animals Diatomaceous Earth has been used effectively for the elimination of worms and parasites without the use of chemicals.

The razor sharp edges of the diatoms are what allows for the parasitic quality. As the diatomaceous earth comes in contact with parasites and worms they are lacerated by the sharp edges and thus killed. DE will not hurt beneficial soil micro-organisms. "Ingestion of diatomaceous earth is not toxic to mammals. ... Impoverished humans add "fossil flour" to their baked goods in order to stretch their flour supply (Cummins 1975). ...

Wild-Crafted Black Walnut Hull from Green Hull (Juglans regia)
... to promote healthy microbial activity. It is said to effectively kill over 100 types of parasites. ... The high tannin content is primarily responsible for its anti-helmintic property, although other constituents such as juglandin, juglone and juglandic acid are most likely involved. ... The green husk contains organic iodine. Iodine is known to have antiseptic and healing properties which help to fight bacterial infection. Black Walnut has been used to balance sugar levels and burn up excessive toxins and fatty materials. Black Walnut has the ability to fight against fungal infections.

Wild-Crafted Grapefruit Seed Extract (Citrus Paradise)
... may possess the ability to kill hundreds of assorted bacteria, virus and fungal strains and also many kinds of parasites. ... The active ingredient (citricidal) ... is said to effectively kill funguses, parasites, viruses and bacteria.

Wild-Crafted Wormwood Extract (Artemisia absinthium)
... used as a vermifuge (agent that expels parasites) and as a medicinal herb. .. for roundworms and pinworms. It has also been known to be effective for digestive distress and helps increase secretions of the liver and gallbladder.

Wild-Crafted Male Fern Root (Dryopteris filix-mas)
... as a medicinal herb in the elimination of tape worms and liver flukes. Researchers have determined that the chemicals filicin and filmarone found in the oil of the Male Fern Root are toxic to the worms and that oleoresin paralyzes them and keeps them from attaching to the intestine. ..

Wild-Crafted American Worm Seed (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.)
The oil of chenopodium, derived from the seeds and other overground parts of wormseed, is an excellent anthelmintic for roundworms, hookworms, dwarf tapeworms, intestinal amoeba, and other intestinal parasites, though it is not as effective against large tapeworms. ... Wormwood contains up to 90% ascaridol which is a powerful worm expellant.

Bromelain
Bromelain ... is a proteolytic enzyme that decomposes protein in the body. ... derived from the pineapple plant and is useful in reducing muscle and tissue inflammation (anti-inflammatory) and also as an aid in digestion.

Wild-Crafted Kamala (Mallotus Philippinensis {MUELL.}
Greatest use is as a vermifuge for the tapeworm. The worm is almost always passed whole and generally dead. It is known to act quickly and effectively.

Wild-Crafted Boldo Leaves (Peumus Boldus {MOLINA}
Found mainly in Chile and Peru, it has been used for liver, bowel, and gallbladder problems and also as an anthelmintic against worms. ... also has demonstrated anti-inflammatory activities as well as protects against colon damage and lowered inflammation against induced colitis and colon inflammation in animals.

Recommendations While Taking Para-Buster:
Diet
It is suggested that the bowel be kept in an alkaline state while taking Para-Buster.
To accomplish this avoid sugar, dairy, wheat, meat, fish and poultry is encouraged.
These are foods that are generally acidic and foods that parasites thrive on.
Eat plenty of raw organic fruits and vegetables (be sure to wash thoroughly) and drink at least half of your body weight in ounces of clean purified water daily.

Die-Off
Since the die-off of parasites produce toxins in the body you may experience nausea, fatigue, headaches, etc. This is natural and a good sign ....

[A 42-day cleanse of up to 6 tablets per day is recommeded up to twice per year.]





6

Parasites: What's eating on you?
Could it be Parasites - A Constant Battle -
http://www.zhealthinfo.com/parasites.htm
Taken from Herbal Insights by Kroeger Herb Products

[Activity] ... Since parasites are most active and reproduce around the full moon, this is when some of the effects are most prominent. ...

Roundworms are common throughout the world. It is estimated that twenty five percent of people in the world are infected with roundworms. Infections come from consuming worm eggs found on fruits and vegetables grown in contaminated soil. Some symptoms of roundworms are digestive disturbances, intestinal gas, weight gain around full moon, blood sugar imbalance, fatigue, anemia, restlessness and teeth grinding at night. ...

There are many different species of tapeworm found in all parts of the world, and they can grow to be very large. We usually contract tapeworm from an intermediate host, such as beef, pork, fish, dogs and cats. We can also pick up some tapeworms by directly consuming their eggs. In humans, they reside in the intestines where they absorb our nutrients, especially vitamin b-12 and folic acid and give off dangerous waste. Tapeworm can cause intestinal gas, thyroid and intestinal imbalances, high and low blood sugar, jaundice, bloating, fluid build up during the full moon and verminous intoxication [Fatigue - Chronic Fatigue, flu like symptoms, apathy, depression.] ...

Verminous intoxication is the result of a worm's waste toxins. It produces symptoms such as dizzy', unclear thinking, high and low blood sugar, hunger pains, poor digestion and allergies.

Growths - parasites can clump together causing tumors or Cysts. ...

Flukes - includes: fasciola, paragonimus, heterophyes, schistosoma, metagonemus, alaria, opisthorchis and dicrocoelium. Flukes are smaller parasites that attach themselves to a variety of organs, including the lungs, heart, intestines, brain, bladder, liver and blood vessels, causing inflammation and damage. Fluke eggs have tiny, protruding spines that can cause damage as they migrate through the body. People become infected by eating raw or undercooked fish or crab, eating infected vegetables like water chestnut or watercress, or drinking or wading through infected water. ...

Single Cell parasites -
Protozoans includes toxoplasmosa, cryptosporidium, giardia, amoeba, neospora, sarcocystis and trichomonas.

Microscopic protozoans harm more people than any other parasitic disease. The cyst or resting stage of this parasite is very resistant to temperature, dryness and chemicals, which are found everywhere in our environment. People ingest these cysts, which then "hatch" in our bodies. athough we are commonly exposed to protozoans, our immune systems usually keep them under control, but people with a weakened immune system or toxic condition cannot fight off these parasites as easily.

Protozoans can be found in the intestines, lungs, muscle tissue and the digestive tract, releasing toxins and tissue destroying enzymes. Protozoan infections may be associated with arthritis, asthma, degenerative muscle diseases, Hodgkin's disease, lymphoma, MS., ovarian cysts, psoriasis, cutaneous ulcers, dermatitis and more.

... bitter digestive tonic herbs are used to paralyze and kill parasites in the digestive tract as well as controlling their eggs and improving digestive secretions, a natural protection against parasite overgrowth. At the same time, the bitter principles help to increase elimination, so that the parasites' toxins may be excreted at a faster rate. ...

Pumpkin seeds, garlic, calmyrna figs, pomegranates, cranberry juice, and apple cider vinegar are good foods to include in your diet to control parasites. Parasitic infections set in when the body is alkaline. Keeping the intestines slightly acidic may help prevent and treat an infection. Cranberry juice or diluted apple cider vinegar (2 tablespoons to eight ounces of water) works well for this.





7

Link to 550 images representing more than 180 species of parasites
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/a-z.html

Fluke, Human Lung (Paragonimus westermani),
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/paragonimus.html
Can be acquired from raw or pickled crab and crayfish.

Hookworms (Ancylostoma spp. and Necator spp.), 15% of humans
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/hookworms.html

Pinworms (Enterobius vermicularis, Oxyuris spp.), 10% of humans
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/enterobius.html

Tapeworms, Beef and Pork (Taenia spp.),
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/taenia.html
As adults in the definitive host's small intestine, tapeworms rarely cause problems; in exceptional cases the tapeworms might physically block the intestinal tract, due to their large size, or proglottids might become lodged in the appendix and result in appendicitis.

Whipworm, human (Trichuris trichiura),
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~parasite/trichuris.html